What Is Open Source Intelligence (OSINT)?

Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) involves collecting, assessing, and distributing data from publicly accessible platforms to fulfill specific intelligence goals.

Among all the various types of threat intelligence, OSINT stands out as one of the most commonly utilized. This is hardly surprising, as it is often available at no cost, making it an attractive option for many.

However, much like other intelligence types — such as human intelligence (HUMINT), signals intelligence (SIGINT), and geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) — OSINT is frequently misunderstood and misapplied.

The widespread adoption and growing complexity of OSINT are reflected in market forecasts. According to Future Market Insights, the OSINT sector is expected to exceed $58 billion by 2033, illustrating its expanding significance across industries.

If you’ve ever wondered, “What does OSINT mean?” or “What is open source intelligence?” then this article is for you.

In this post, we’ll explore the essentials of OSINT, examining how it is employed, the tools available, and the methodologies for its collection and analysis. We will break down what OSINT is, clarify its meaning, and emphasize the critical role it plays in the field of intelligence gathering, particularly within cyber security.

Essential Highlights on OSINT Usage, OSINT Sources, and Open Source Info

Open source intelligence (OSINT) is sourced from publicly available data and resources. While it is not restricted to information obtained via search engines like Google, the “surface web” remains a key component of the process.

Though OSINT can provide valuable insights, the sheer volume of accessible information poses a significant challenge. Most of the tools and methods employed in OSINT activities are designed to help cybersecurity professionals (or malicious actors) narrow their focus to particular areas of relevance.

A troubling facet of OSINT is that data available to cybersecurity specialists is equally reachable and susceptible to misuse by malicious actors.

Establishing a methodical approach and clear guidelines is essential for effectively gathering open-source intelligence. Rummaging through data without direction can quickly lead to fatigue and inefficiency.

Leveraging OSINT tools to identify and safeguard confidential information from potential intruders is crucial for minimizing the risk of cyber threats.

Deciphering OSINT: OSINT Meaning, OSINT Definition, and What Does OSINT Stand For?

Comprehending the core idea behind OSINT is fundamental before examining the array of resources and applications it encompasses.

Under federal law in USA, open source intelligence:

• Is derived from publicly accessible data
• Is gathered, evaluated, and shared promptly with the relevant audience
• Serves a distinct intelligence need

The key concept here is “publicly accessible.”

The phrase “open source” specifically refers to information that is readily available for anyone to access. If acquiring certain data necessitates specialized skills, tools, or methods, it no longer qualifies as open source.

It’s also important to note that open source information isn’t confined to what you can find via popular search engines. While web pages and other materials accessible through platforms like Google are significant sources, they don’t make up the entirety of open source data.

A substantial portion of the web (more than 99%, according to former Google CEO Eric Schmidt) is not indexed by traditional search engines. This “deep web” contains countless websites, databases, documents, and other online resources that are inaccessible to search engines due to reasons like logins, paywalls, or other barriers. Nevertheless, a large amount of this content remains publicly accessible, which means it can still be classified as open source.

OSINT tools are instrumental in reaching and evaluating data from sources beyond standard search engines. Tools like Spiderfoot, Searx, Twint, and Metagoofil can gather and analyze extensive volumes of information from both public and open resources, including social networks and deep web content. These tools help uncover data, identify connections, and convert raw findings into actionable intelligence.

Moreover, there’s a wealth of publicly accessible content available online through methods other than conventional search engines. For example, platforms like SecurityTrails allow users to locate IP addresses, networks, open ports, webcams, printers, and much more connected to the internet.

Information qualifies as open source if it is:

• Published or transmitted for a broad audience (such as media reports)
• Accessible to the public upon request (like census records)
• Available via subscription or for purchase (such as industry magazines)
• Observable by any casual passerby
• Presented at publicly accessible meetings
• Obtained by attending open events or visiting public places

At this point, you might be thinking, “That’s an enormous amount of information…”

And you’re absolutely right. We’re dealing with an almost inconceivable volume of data, expanding at a pace that’s far beyond what anyone could realistically monitor. Even if we focus on a single platform—say, Twitter—we’d still have to manage millions of new data points daily.

This, as you’ve likely realized, is the inherent challenge of open source intelligence.

Operational Mechanics of Open Source Intelligence in Cyber Security: How OSINT Works

Since the days of World War II, elite operatives within the intelligence community have been gathering open-source data such as radio broadcasts, newspapers, and market trends. Fast forward to today, and due to the sheer volume and diversity of publicly available information, almost anyone can engage in open-source intelligence (OSINT) collection.

Some of the publicly accessible data sources that OSINT investigators utilize include:

• Online search platforms like Google, DuckDuckGo, Yahoo, Bing, and Yandex.
• Traditional and digital news outlets, such as newspapers, online publications, and news websites.
• Social media profiles across networks like Facebook, Twitter (formerly X), Instagram, and LinkedIn.
• Online discussion forums, blogs, and chat platforms like Internet Relay Chat (IRC).
• The dark web, a secured and anonymous section of the internet that remains unindexed by search engines.
• Online databases containing phone numbers, emails, and physical address listings.
• Publicly available records like birth and death certificates, legal filings, and business documentation.
• Government data such as transcripts of meetings, budget reports, speeches, and official releases from local, state, and national authorities.
• Scholarly research including academic papers, theses, and journal articles.
• Technical details such as IP addresses, APIs, open network ports, and web page metadata.

However, before embarking on OSINT data collection, it’s essential to set a clear objective. For instance, cybersecurity experts utilizing OSINT first determine the type of insights they aim to uncover and identify which public data sources will help achieve these goals.

Once the relevant public information is gathered, it must be processed to eliminate irrelevant or duplicate data. Security teams can then analyze this refined data to generate actionable intelligence reports.

Chronicle of OSINT: Tracing the Evolution of OSINT Industries and Open Source Information

The concept of OSINT, which stands for Open Source Intelligence, involves the practice of gathering and analyzing publicly accessible information for intelligence purposes. Although this practice has been around for quite some time, it is the rise of the digital age that truly elevated OSINT to a critical function in modern intelligence operations.

The origins of OSINT trace back to the establishment of the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service (FBMS) in 1941. This agency was tasked with the vital responsibility of monitoring foreign radio and television broadcasts to detect any suspicious activities or threats.

The term OSINT was officially introduced by the U.S. military in the late 1980s, as the need for more efficient intelligence methods became clear amidst the rapidly changing information landscape, especially in military operations. Initially, OSINT was used primarily by intelligence agencies and law enforcement to gather publicly available data for national security and crime investigations. This process was labor-intensive, requiring analysts to sift through public records and various documents, a daunting task due to the sheer volume of information.

The digital age, however, revolutionized OSINT. The internet expanded access to vast amounts of data, from government reports to academic papers, making it much easier to collect and analyze information. The development of automated tools allowed professionals to swiftly and methodically compile information from a variety of channels, such as social networks and publicly accessible archives.

As cybersecurity became more crucial, OSINT’s role expanded. Security experts began using open-source data to detect weaknesses, monitor digital risks, and fortify security measures. Today, OSINT tools are essential for detecting security risks, analyzing metadata, and protecting organizations from emerging cyber threats.

A notable development in the OSINT field is the incorporation of machine learning and analytics into OSINT tools. This advancement has improved the ability of these tools to recognize patterns and detect trends within large datasets. Not only has this made OSINT tools more efficient, but it has also expanded the ways in which they can be applied. For example, security experts now leverage OSINT for penetration testing, while companies use it to gain insights into competitors and market conditions.

The community of OSINT researchers has also grown significantly over time, with online forums, conferences, and collaborative groups forming to exchange knowledge, share best practices, and develop new techniques for open-source intelligence. Numerous OSINT tools, such as Recon-ng, have thriving communities of developers on platforms like GitHub, who continuously work to enhance and customize these tools by creating modules that extend their functionalities. The contributions of these communities have played a crucial role in advancing OSINT practices, cementing its place as an essential tool for intelligence gathering and cybersecurity.

Significance of Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT) in Modern Surveillance and OSINT.US Surveillance

Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT) holds significant value due to its unique set of benefits that set it apart from traditional intelligence gathering methods. Here’s why OSINT stands out:

1. Access to Public Data: OSINT gathers information from open and legally obtainable sources. This allows organizations to bypass the complexities and costs associated with acquiring classified or restricted intelligence.
2. Diverse Range of Sources: Open-source intelligence can be drawn from a wide spectrum of materials, including social media platforms, news outlets, governmental publications, and academic research. This allows entities to accumulate insights on a variety of subjects from numerous viewpoints.
3. Real-Time Relevance: Given its reliance on publicly accessible data, OSINT can be collected swiftly and in real-time. This ensures that businesses and organizations can remain informed about the latest developments and emerging issues as they unfold.
4. Cost-Effectiveness: Unlike other intelligence types such as human intelligence (HUMINT) or signals intelligence (SIGINT), OSINT is significantly more affordable. It makes use of publicly available content, thereby eliminating the need for expensive equipment or specialized personnel.
5. Transparency and Verifiability: One of the key advantages of OSINT is its transparency. Since the information is sourced from public platforms, it is easier to validate, giving organizations confidence in the reliability and accuracy of the intelligence they gather.

OSINT proves to be an indispensable tool for modern surveillance, offering a broad range of applications and advantages that make it accessible, affordable, and efficient for both private and public sectors.

Utilization of OSINT Across Fields

Having explored the fundamentals of open source intelligence, let’s examine its practical applications, particularly in cybersecurity. Open source intelligence is pivotal in bolstering national security and fortifying cybersecurity measures. Key applications include:

OSINT in Ethical Hacking: Techniques and Open Source Intelligence Tools

In ethical hacking, security experts leverage open source intelligence to detect vulnerabilities in internal systems and networks before they are exploited by malicious actors. By identifying potential weak points proactively, organizations can prevent attacks and bolster their defenses. Some common vulnerabilities discovered through OSINT include:

• Unintentional exposure of confidential data: This can occur through social media posts, cloud storage mishaps, or public-facing documents. Identifying and securing sensitive information is key to minimizing cyber threats.
• Unsecured network ports or devices: Open or improperly configured ports can serve as gateways for unauthorized access. OSINT tools help uncover these security gaps by scanning and identifying vulnerable entry points.
• Outdated software and applications: Many websites or online services run outdated versions of content management systems (CMS) or software. These outdated systems may have known exploits that can be easily leveraged by attackers.
• Exposed intellectual property or assets: This includes proprietary source code or confidential business documents accidentally shared or exposed on public platforms, such as pastebins or GitHub repositories.
• Weak credentials and open accounts: Information about weak passwords, open accounts, or default configurations can often be uncovered through OSINT tools and provide potential attack vectors.
• Vulnerable third-party services or APIs: Unsecured third-party integrations or outdated public APIs can expose businesses to data breaches and other threats.

By applying OSINT techniques and using tools designed for data collection, security professionals can systematically identify these weaknesses and take steps to protect them before malicious actors can exploit them.

Scouting for External Security Threats Using OSINT Sources and OSINT Tech

As we’ve emphasized previously, the internet serves as a rich resource for uncovering potential external threats that could impact an organization. From spotting newly discovered vulnerabilities that cybercriminals are actively exploiting to monitoring discussions and warnings about upcoming cyberattacks, open-source intelligence (OSINT) allows cybersecurity experts to prioritize and direct their efforts toward addressing the most urgent and relevant threats.

Typically, this process involves the analysis of various data points to confirm the legitimacy of a potential threat. OSINT technologies are utilized to gather and analyze publicly accessible information from diverse sources, such as social media platforms and the dark web, to cross-reference and validate these data points for threat assessment. For example, a solitary alarming post on Twitter might seem insignificant, but if this post is linked to a recognized threat group with a history of targeting specific sectors, it takes on greater importance and warrants closer attention.

A crucial aspect of open-source intelligence is its frequent integration with other intelligence types. For instance, data obtained from closed sources—such as internal logs, private dark web channels, and collaborative intelligence-sharing networks—are often used in conjunction with OSINT to refine and confirm findings. There is a wide range of specialized tools that aid analysts in conducting these assessments, enabling them to effectively filter, verify, and interpret both open and closed source information. We’ll explore some of these tools in greater detail shortly.

Risks Associated with Open Source Intelligence: Exploring OSINTdogo and What is OSINyt?

Now is an appropriate moment to discuss another significant challenge posed by open source intelligence: the accessibility of such information to not only security professionals but also to adversarial entities.

Malicious actors leverage open source intelligence tools and methods to pinpoint vulnerabilities and orchestrate attacks on network infrastructures. Identifying a weakness often leads quickly and effortlessly to its exploitation, facilitating a range of harmful actions. Additionally, these actors systematically search for confidential data which they can manipulate for nefarious purposes, such as executing targeted breaches or marketing the details on the dark web.

This mechanism is a key factor behind the frequent security breaches suffered by numerous small and medium enterprises annually. These incidents typically occur not because these businesses are specifically targeted by cybercriminals but because their digital defenses are easily breached using basic open source intelligence strategies. Essentially, their vulnerabilities make them straightforward prey.

Moreover, open source intelligence extends beyond just facilitating technical intrusions into IT frameworks. Various adversary types utilize it to gather personal and corporate information, crafting intricate social engineering tactics. Techniques such as phishing (via email), vishing (through phone calls or voicemails), and SMiShing (via text messages) are often based on harmless-seeming details collected from social networks and blogs. These pieces of information can be orchestrated into convincing deception schemes aimed at duping unsuspecting individuals into undermining their own or their employer’s security.

Hence, the application of open source intelligence for defensive measures is crucial. It enables organizations to identify and remediate vulnerabilities within their networks and eliminate exposed sensitive data before such intelligence is weaponized by threat actors using the same methodologies for exploitation.

Techniques and Tools for Effective Open Source Intelligence: Frameworks, OSINT Intelligence, and OSINT Tools

Having explored the various applications of open source intelligence, both beneficial and detrimental, it’s now essential to delve into the methods and instruments used to gather and analyze open source data.

To begin, it is imperative to establish a well-defined plan and framework for collecting and utilizing open source intelligence. Approaching OSINT with the mindset of gathering any potentially useful information is not advisable—due to the overwhelming volume of publicly accessible data, such an approach can quickly become unmanageable.

Choosing the appropriate OSINT tool for your specific intelligence objectives is also vital. Tools like Spiderfoot, Searchcode, Searx, Twint, and Metagoofil are invaluable in uncovering and cataloging large sets of data, detecting correlations and connections across different data points, and transforming gathered information into actionable insights.

Instead of casting a wide net, it is far more effective to have a clear focus. For instance, if your goal is to locate and address vulnerabilities within your network, your efforts should be honed specifically on that objective, steering clear of distractions.

Moreover, it’s important to identify a reliable set of methods and tools for gathering and processing open source intelligence. Given the sheer scale of available data, relying on manual efforts would be ineffectual at best. Streamlining the process of gathering and processing large quantities of data is vital for achieving effective results.

Contrasting Passive and Active Forms of OSINT: Using Open Source Intelligence Examples

When it comes to gathering open source intelligence, the process generally falls into two distinct approaches: passive collection and active collection.

Passive collection primarily involves utilizing threat intelligence platforms (TIPs) that aggregate multiple threat feeds into a single, accessible hub. While this method significantly improves upon manual data gathering, it still carries the risk of data overload.

To address this challenge, more sophisticated solutions like Recorded Future employ advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing. These tools automate the prioritization and filtering of alerts based on the specific requirements of an organization. In addition, OSINT tools further enhance this by pulling and analyzing vast amounts of data from public and open sources, including social media platforms and the deep web.

Similarly, threat actors often deploy botnets to harvest valuable information using techniques like traffic sniffing or keylogging.

In contrast, active collection takes a more focused approach, employing different methods to seek out particular details or knowledge. For cybersecurity experts, active collection is generally driven by one of two motives:

• A passive alert has indicated a potential threat, and deeper investigation is required.
• The intelligence gathering effort has a highly specific aim, such as conducting a penetration test.

To conclude, we’ll examine some of the most widely used tools for gathering and analyzing open source intelligence.

While many free tools are available to both security experts and malicious actors, search engines like Google are among the most frequently utilized (and often misused) OSINT resources.

As discussed earlier, one of the most significant challenges faced by security professionals is the frequent, unintentional exposure of sensitive data by well-meaning users. A set of advanced search techniques, known as “Google dork” queries, can be used to pinpoint such exposed data and assets.

Google dork queries rely on search operators commonly used by both IT professionals and cybercriminals to refine search results. For instance, operators like “filetype:” limit results to a specific document type, while “site:” filters results to a specific domain.

A good example from Public Intelligence shows the following query:

“sensitive but unclassified” filetype:pdf site:publicintelligence.net

By entering this query, only PDF files from the Public Intelligence website containing the phrase “sensitive but unclassified” will be displayed. With numerous commands available, both security professionals and malicious actors can leverage similar methods to locate virtually anything.

You can read more about Google Dorking technology in our article on this topic.

Beyond search engines, a vast array of tools is available for identifying network vulnerabilities and exposed assets. For example, Wappalyzer can be used to determine the technologies employed on a website, and by combining this with resources like Sploitus or the National Vulnerability Database, one can check for related vulnerabilities. Taking it a step further, a comprehensive threat intelligence solution like Recorded Future can help assess if any known vulnerabilities are actively being exploited or included in active exploit kits.

Review of Common OSINT Techniques: OSINT Frameworks and Examples in Intelligence Gathering

Open-source intelligence (OSINT) covers a broad spectrum of methods for collecting and evaluating publicly accessible information. Below are some frequently used OSINT techniques:

1. Internet Discovery Platforms: Leading web exploration providers are critical resources for open-source intelligence. By using refined query techniques, professionals can efficiently filter outcomes, directing their focus to the most relevant information.
2. Online Interaction Hubs: Major digital communities created for personal or professional networking offer extensive opportunities for open-source research. By examining user behavior and posted content, intelligence personnel can detect shifts in popular attitudes and recognize potential security concerns as they arise.
3. Publicly Accessible Records: Public records, such as legal documents, property deeds, and business registrations, offer valuable open-source intelligence. Analysts can utilize these records to gain insights into individuals, organizations, and various entities.
4. News Outlets: Traditional and online media, such as newspapers, digital magazines, and news websites, are key OSINT sources. By observing and analyzing news articles, analysts can stay informed on unfolding events, shifting trends, and potential risks.
5. Web Scraping: Web scraping is the technique of utilizing automated software to gather information from online platforms. This technique allows analysts to harvest large volumes of data from a variety of sites, making it possible to gather information quickly and efficiently.
6. Data Analysis Tools: Software like Excel, Tableau, and R plays a vital role in the analysis of vast datasets. With these tools, analysts can identify correlations, trends, and significant patterns within the gathered data.
7. Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT): Analysts use satellite imagery and geolocation tools to track and identify significant locations or events. This form of OSINT can be particularly valuable in monitoring physical developments, such as changes in infrastructure or movements of key assets.
8. Dark Web Exploration: Exploring the dark web through specialized tools allows analysts to uncover illicit activities, such as underground markets or data leaks. This can provide critical intelligence on threats or vulnerabilities that may not be visible on the surface web.
9. WHOIS and DNS Lookups: Analysts use WHOIS and DNS tools to track domain registration information, helping identify the origin of websites, and potentially uncovering connections to malicious entities or threats. 10 Human Intelligence (HUMINT) Integration: Sometimes, publicly accessible intelligence is paired with firsthand human insights, enabling specialists to correlate social network content and open discussions with real-world data, thereby gaining a more profound perspective on particular risks or incidents.

The realm of OSINT is constantly developing, propelled by technological progress and the expanding supply of information across multiple platforms. For analysts, staying current with new tools, techniques, and information sources is essential for efficient and effective intelligence gathering and analysis.

Inquiries into OSINT: What You Should Know

Legal Aspects of OSINT and OSINT in Cyber Security

Open-source intelligence (OSINT) is generally considered lawful, as it involves the collection of publicly accessible data. However, the legal status can become unclear depending on how the information is utilized or if efforts are made to obtain restricted or private data under the pretext of OSINT. It is vital to ensure that, while acquiring intelligence, sensitive data is safeguarded to prevent it from being misused by malicious actors.

Key considerations include:

1. Use of Public Data: While gathering publicly available information is typically legal, the way it is applied—particularly in contexts that may breach privacy or intellectual property laws—could pose legal challenges. Unauthorized reproduction or dissemination of protected content could result in violations.
2. Adherence to Local and International Regulations: Legal frameworks surrounding data collection vary across jurisdictions. Adherence to data protection regulations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe and the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) is crucial to circumvent legal complications.
3. Ethical Collection Methods: Some OSINT tactics, such as scraping data from websites or accessing non-public forums, may cross ethical or legal boundaries if they circumvent restrictions or violate terms of service. It is important to engage in practices that respect privacy and adhere to lawful access protocols.
4. Sensitive Data Handling: While performing OSINT activities, it is important to avoid inadvertently collecting or exposing private or confidential data. Protecting personally identifiable information and sensitive business data is essential to comply with privacy laws and prevent misuse.
5. OSINT in Cybersecurity Contexts: In cybersecurity, OSINT is often employed to monitor vulnerabilities, detect threats, and enhance defense strategies. However, security professionals must be cautious not to infringe on legal boundaries when utilizing open-source data to assess or secure networks.

By adhering to these guidelines, OSINT practices can be both legally compliant and ethically sound.

Challenges and Controversial Aspects of Open Source Intelligence

The darker side of OSINT arises when confidential information is collected and exploited for harmful intentions. This misuse can manifest in various forms, including cyberstalking, online harassment, doxxing, or orchestrating cyberattacks. Although OSINT is an invaluable resource for a range of legitimate purposes, like any powerful tool, it has the potential to be weaponized when wielded by malicious individuals.

How to Use OSINT for Intelligence Gathering on the Dark Web: Safety Measures

Open-source intelligence serves as an indispensable resource for exposing hidden platforms and forums on the dark web, assisting in cybercrime investigations or identifying potential threats. Leveraging tools like Spiderfoot and Twint is essential for accessing and analyzing data from these hidden resources. However, exploring the dark web requires specific precautions to ensure safety and compliance:

• Adherence to Legal Standards: Ensure that all actions are in line with local and international laws, avoiding any unauthorized access to private data or illegal activities.
• Privacy Protection: Always respect privacy guidelines and avoid infringing on individuals’ privacy rights when collecting information.
• Secure Browsing Practices: Use privacy-focused tools, such as Tor or VPN services, to shield your identity and encrypt your browsing activity.
• Malware Protection: Implement robust security software, such as firewalls and antivirus tools, to safeguard against malicious software often encountered on the dark web.
• Data Verification: Cross-check and validate the data obtained from various sources to ensure its accuracy and reliability before drawing conclusions.
• Use of Secure Communication Channels: When sharing or receiving sensitive information, rely on encrypted messaging platforms and secure communication protocols.
• Limiting Exposure: Avoid engaging in direct interactions with users or groups on the dark web to minimize the risk of exposure to illegal activities.
• Monitoring for Trends: Continuously track and monitor dark web activity for emerging threats, vulnerabilities, and newly exposed data relevant to your objective

By following these safety protocols, you can ensure the lawful, ethical, and secure use of OSINT in gathering intelligence from the dark web, reducing the risks associated with such sensitive operations.

Strategic Planning: Foreseeing the Impact of OSINT Intelligence with Open Source Intelligence Frameworks

A key element in the success of any open-source intelligence (OSINT) operation is having a well-defined plan. Once the goals are clearly outlined and objectives are set, selecting the most effective tools and methods becomes a more straightforward process. Establishing a strong strategy allows you to prioritize the right data, sources, and techniques for collecting actionable intelligence.

Here are some additional factors to consider when developing a strategy for OSINT:

1. Objective Clarity: Clearly define what you aim to achieve, whether it’s identifying cyber threats, understanding competitor behavior, or tracking geopolitical developments.
2. Identifying Key Information Channels: Determine the most pertinent data sources, including platforms like social networking sites, official government repositories, and activities within the hidden sections of the internet.
3. Tool Integration: Select resources that align with your objectives, like OSINT systems for immediate data gathering or custom software for detailed examination.
4. Integrity Evaluation: Assess the trustworthiness of the collected information by comparing it with multiple reputable references.
5. Regulatory and Ethical Responsibilitie: Ensure adherence to applicable laws and uphold moral standards when sourcing information, particularly in delicate areas such as the dark web or during the acquisition of personal data.
6. Protective Strategies: Implement comprehensive safeguarding measures to secure your own information and maintain the integrity of your operations.

A thoughtful and meticulously crafted plan ensures that OSINT initiatives generate meaningful, actionable insights rather than being overwhelmed by excessive and disorganized information.